What is Stoicism? Definition, Concepts, Figures

Table of contents

1. Definition of Stoicism in 1 Minute
2. The Postulates of Stoicism
3. What Are the Key Concepts of Stoicism?
4. 10 Major Figures of Stoicism
5. What is Contemporary Stoicism?

Definition of Stoicism in 1 Minute

Stoicism is a philosophy of life founded by Zeno of Citium in the late 4th century BC in Athens. The name Stoicism comes from “stoa,” which means portico in Greek, referring to the place where Zeno taught.

Stoicism posits that humans are rational and social beings who thrive by developing their rationality and sociability. Stoics view reason as a tool for individual and collective happiness. When used correctly, it ensures a harmonious connection with oneself, others, and nature. It allows for acceptance of what is beyond one’s control and mastery over desires, judgments, and perceptions.

The Stoic method involves understanding the world (physics) and deducing (through logic) life principles (ethics) that are useful for individual and collective happiness. Thus, physics, logic, and ethics are the three components of this system, encapsulated in the Stoic motto: live (ethics) in harmony (logic) with nature (physics).

The Postulates of Stoicism

James Daltrey, a scholar active in the “traditional Stoicism” community, summarizes the key beliefs of Stoicism in five points (that have been shared in 2022, on the Facebook Group Traditional Stoicism) :

1. The world, Nature, or Cosmos is real, physical, regular, ordered, and patterned, and a suitable home within which humans as natural creatures can flourish.
2. We are naturally adapted to understanding these patterns for our own survival and flourishing, and through intelligence and language, we can express this understanding to ourselves and to others, and test them logically and critically against the world.
3. Individually and collectively, over time, we can build a coherent system of knowledge of the world and how to live in harmony with it, with each other and with ourselves.
4. This knowledge of how to live well is virtue itself and the only good from all other benefits are derived.
5. The Universe itself, the Whole, the All things as One thing, is Nature is Fate, is Zeus is Providence is a place fit for human flourishing.

These five key points reveal the interconnection between physics, ethics, and logic, highlighting the holistic dimension of Stoicism.

What Are the Key Concepts of Stoicism?

Some concepts of Stoicism are sometimes misunderstood. For example, the meaning of the words virtue or passion is different in Stoicism compared to their modern meanings.

Here are some recurring terms that will help you familiarize yourself with Stoic ideas. The list is not exhaustive, but it is comprehensive enough for you to grasp the foundations of Stoicism.

Virtue (aretê)

Virtue is the only thing that is truly good in itself, sufficient to achieve happiness (eudaimonia). Everything else, such as wealth, health, or reputation, is considered indifferent, meaning neither good nor bad in itself, but simply things that can be used virtuously or not.

Virtue is a stable and unwavering disposition of the soul, which consists of living in accordance with nature, that is, universal reason (the logos or God). It is divided into four main cardinal virtues:

• Wisdom (sophia): The ability to discern good from evil, make informed decisions, and understand the nature of things.
• Courage (andreia): The ability to face difficulties, fear, and pain without losing calm or determination.
• Justice (dikaiosynè): The disposition to treat others fairly, respect rights, and act selflessly for the good of the community.
• Temperance (sôphrosynè): The ability to moderate desires and passions, control impulses, and live with sobriety and discipline.

Stoics assert that virtue alone is a true good because it is the only thing entirely within our control. All other external things are subject to fortune and circumstances, and therefore cannot be considered goods or evils in themselves. Thus, to achieve happiness, one must lead a life in accordance with reason by cultivating virtues and detaching from external things.

Stoicism is not just a theory but a way of life. Stoics emphasize the constant practice of virtue through self-examination, meditation, and the application of Stoic principles in daily situations. It is about developing an inner strength that allows one to remain serene and rational in any circumstance, always striving to act justly and wisely.

Vice (kakos)

Vice is the opposite of virtue. While virtue is considered the only thing truly good and capable of leading to happiness, vice is seen as the only thing truly bad, as it leads to ignorance, moral suffering, and a life in discord with reason and nature.

For the Stoics, vice is a disposition of the soul that involves living in disagreement with nature, that is, in opposition to universal reason (the logos or God). Vice results from the improper use of our rational capacity, leading to actions, thoughts, and emotions that are irrational and destructive. It is associated with the false belief that external things beyond our control, such as wealth, health, or fame, are necessary or sufficient for happiness.

In the same way that virtue is divided into four cardinal virtues, vice manifests through defects opposed to these virtues:

• Ignorance (agnoia): This is the opposite of wisdom. It consists of failing to discern good from evil, being deceived by appearances or erroneous judgments, and acting irrationally.
• Cowardice (deilia): This is the opposite of courage. It is characterized by excessive fear, avoidance of challenges, inability to endure pain or discomfort, and weakness in the face of adversity.
• Injustice (adikia): This is the opposite of justice. It involves selfish behavior, dishonesty, exploitation of others, or disregard for the rights and needs of others.
• Intemperance (akolasia): This is the opposite of temperance. It manifests in excess, lack of control over desires and passions, excessive indulgence, and a dissolute life.

For the Stoics, vice is the source of human suffering. It creates emotional disturbances, inner conflicts, and discord with the rational nature of man. Those who live in vice are dominated by irrational passions such as anger, fear, envy, and greed, which distance them from true happiness.

Stoicism offers a form of philosophical “therapy” to cure vice. This involves training reason, meditating on Stoic principles, self-examination, and the constant practice of virtues. By cultivating wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance, one can gradually eliminate vices and lead a virtuous life in harmony with nature.

Indifferents (adiaphora)

Indifferents refer to external things that do not affect our virtue or happiness. The Stoics divide indifferents into two categories: preferred (e.g., health, wealth, reputation) and non-preferred (e.g., illness, poverty, disgrace).

However, neither of these is considered intrinsically good or bad; they are simply things that we can use either virtuously or not.

What depends on me and what does not

The distinction between what depends on me and what does not is central to Stoic philosophy. This concept opens Epictetus’ famous Handbook:

Of things that exist, some depend on us, others do not. What depends on us are, in a word, judgment, impulse, desire, aversion, and all our own actions. What does not depend on us are, in a word, the body, our material possessions, others’ opinions of us, public offices, and everything that is not our own action.

This distinction guides individuals toward a more serene and virtuous life. It suggests focusing attention and efforts solely on what truly depends on oneself.

What depends on us includes:

• Our judgments — how we perceive and interpret external events.
• Our desires and aversions — what we choose to pursue or avoid, based on our understanding of good and evil.
• Our actions — the choices and behaviors we adopt in response to the situations we encounter.

On the other hand, everything outside our mind and will is considered beyond our control — this includes external events and others’ reactions (life circumstances, wealth, health, reputation, relationships, circumstances, natural phenomena, chance, and fate).

Stoic practice involves recognizing this distinction and acting accordingly.

Passion (pathos)

Passion (in Greek, pathos) is considered a disturbance of the soul, an excessive and irrational emotion that disrupts reason and leads to actions contrary to virtue. The Stoics view passions as diseases of the soul, arising from erroneous judgments about what is good or bad. They are seen as a form of vice and are in direct opposition to the Stoic ideal of living according to reason and in harmony with nature.

The Stoics classify passions into four categories, each corresponding to a wrong evaluation of good or evil:

• Desire (epithumia): This passion arises when one intensely desires something believed to be good. The problem, according to the Stoics, is that this desire is often directed toward indifferent things or things outside our control, such as wealth, fame, or bodily pleasures.
• Fear (phobos): This passion is born from the perception of a future evil. It manifests as fear or anxiety in the face of events we dread, such as illness, poverty, or death.
• Pleasure (hêdonê): This type of passion is an excessive reaction to possessing or acquiring something believed to be good. It can manifest as excessive exuberance or euphoria, not grounded in reason.
• Pain (lupê): This passion results from the perception of a present evil. It manifests as depression, grief, or distress in response to events perceived as bad.

The Stoics distinguish irrational passions from “good feelings” (eupatheia), which are rational and moderate emotional states. Good feelings include positive emotions like joy, rational desire (e.g., love for virtue), and a form of prudence (the rational version of fear, applied to virtue). These emotions are aligned with reason and do not disturb the soul.

For the Stoics, the goal is to live a life free from irrational passions, which means becoming a sage (sophos). This doesn’t mean eliminating all emotions, but rather transforming irrational passions into rational good feelings. This transformation involves self-work, revising our mistaken judgments about what is truly good or bad. Through the practice of Stoic philosophy, one learns to accept what is beyond one’s control, desire only what aligns with virtue, and maintain tranquility of mind in the face of life’s events.

The concept of apathy (apatheia) in Stoicism does not mean the total absence of emotion, as one might infer from the modern sense of the term, but rather the absence of destructive passions. Apathy is the state in which the soul is no longer troubled by irrational passions and remains calm, serene, and rational in all circumstances.

The Sage (sophos)

The sage is the Stoic ideal, a figure who embodies moral perfection and total mastery of reason. Although the Stoics acknowledge that few people achieve this state, the sage remains a model to follow. The sage is entirely virtuous, lives in harmony with nature and reason, and is free from all irrational passions. He is unperturbed by the ups and downs of life and considers only moral good as worthy of value.

God (Nature, Fate, Zeus, the Logos)

In Stoicism, God is often equated with universal reason (the Logos), nature, or fate. The Stoics believe in an ordered and rational cosmos, governed by natural laws that are expressions of divine will. This God is not an anthropomorphic being but rather an omnipresent and immanent force that guides the universe and ensures its harmony. The Stoics sometimes use the name Zeus to refer to this divine force, knowing that it is not the Zeus of Greek myths, but a metaphor for cosmic reason.

According to this view, everything that happens is the result of divine will or fate, a necessary sequence of events dictated by nature. Human beings, as integral parts of this whole, must accept their place in this universal order and strive to live in accordance with nature. This means accepting external events as willed by Providence while focusing on the development of virtue, which is the only thing truly within our control.

Oikeiôsis or Sense of Appropriation

Oikeiôsis is the process by which human beings develop a sense of affinity or belonging with themselves and with others. It is through oikeiôsis that we seek what is good for ourselves and reject what is bad, as all living beings instinctively do.

Initially, this concept refers to the natural instinct for self-preservation, but it later extends to a broader identification with the human community and even with the universe.

For the Stoics, oikeiôsis forms the basis of social duty and justice, as it drives us to treat others with kindness, consider them as members of our family, and act for the common good.

Sympathy (sympatheia)

Sympathy, in the Stoic sense, is not limited to human compassion but refers to the interconnectedness of all elements in the universe. The Stoics believe that everything in the cosmos is connected and that every action or event influences the whole. This view reinforces the idea that our actions, even the smallest ones, have repercussions on the world and that it is our duty to contribute to universal harmony by acting according to reason and justice.

Prohairesis or Faculty of Choice

Prohairesis is a central concept in Stoicism, often translated as “will” or “moral choice.” It refers to the human mind’s ability to make rational choices in accordance with virtue. This is what truly depends on us, according to the Stoics, and where our true freedom lies. By cultivating a right prohairesis — aligned with reason and virtue — one can remain master of oneself, regardless of external circumstances.

For a more exhaustive glossary, you can consult the Wikipedia Glossary of Stoicism terms.

10 Major Figures of Stoicism

At the origin of these key concepts are many Stoic thinkers and practitioners. Here are some of the most frequently cited:

1. Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BCE). Zeno of Citium is the founder of Stoicism. Born in Cyprus, he began his philosophical studies in Athens after surviving a shipwreck. Zeno established the fundamental principles of Stoicism, emphasizing virtue as the highest good and introducing the idea that wisdom and virtue are the only true sources of happiness. His teachings were compiled in dialogues and treatises, although very few of his original writings have survived.
2. Cleanthes (c. 330–232 BCE). Cleanthes, Zeno’s successor as the head of the Stoic school, is known for his contributions to Stoic philosophy, particularly his “Hymn to Zeus.” This work expresses the Stoic view of divinity and cosmic order. Cleanthes continued to develop his master’s ideas and contributed to the systematization of Stoic doctrine, laying the foundation for further developments.
3. Chrysippus of Soli (c. 280–206 BCE) Chrysippus is often considered the second founder of Stoicism due to his significant role in developing and systematizing Stoic philosophy. He wrote numerous treatises on various subjects, deepening Stoic concepts, particularly regarding logic and the theory of emotions. He strengthened the internal coherence of the school by responding to critiques from skeptics.
4. Panaetius (c. 185–110 BCE) Panaetius was one of the first Stoics to introduce Stoicism to Rome. He focused on moral philosophy and natural sciences, which appealed to the Romans. Panaetius is known for his contributions to the theory of roles and duties, which notably inspired Cicero. His Stoicism includes some Platonic and Aristotelian elements, such as the idea that virtue alone may not be entirely sufficient for happiness and that some material goods are also required.
5. Posidonius (c. 135–51 BCE) Posidonius was a Greek Stoic as well as a scientist (astronomer, mathematician, geographer, historian, philologist, and meteorologist). A disciple of Panaetius, he succeeded him as the sixth head of the Stoic school. Posidonius broadened Stoic teachings to include ethical, political, and scientific aspects, combining them with studies of natural history and human psychology.
6. Cato the Younger (95–46 BCE) Cato the Younger, a Roman politician and famous Stoic, is known for his integrity and courage. He notably chose to commit suicide rather than submit to Julius Caesar’s rule. Cato is often portrayed as a model of Stoic virtue and a martyr, and sometimes even as a Sage, a rare distinction in Stoicism.
7. Seneca (4 BCE — 65 CE) Seneca, a philosopher, statesman, and playwright, is one of the most influential figures of Roman Stoicism. His writings, particularly Letters to Lucilius and philosophical treatises, popularized Stoic ideas in Rome and made them accessible to a broad audience. Seneca emphasized the practice of philosophy as a means to lead a virtuous life and as a tool for consolation.
8. Musonius Rufus (c. 25–95 CE) Musonius Rufus was the teacher of Epictetus. His teaching was resolutely practical, emphasizing simplicity, gender equality in education, and virtue as the foundation of a harmonious life. His reputation was so great that some consider him the “Third Founder” of Stoicism after Zeno and Chrysippus.
9. Epictetus (c. 50–130 CE) Epictetus, a former slave who became the head of his own philosophy school in Nicopolis, is a central figure of Roman Stoicism. His teachings, compiled by his student Arrian in the Discourses and Enchiridion, emphasize the distinction between what is within our control and what is not. He advocates for inner freedom through mastery of desires and emotions.
10. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, is known for his Meditations, a collection of personal reflections on universal themes. These writings offer insights into his personal practice of Stoicism and its application in his life and reign. His reflections continue to inspire many today.

What is Contemporary Stoicism?

Today, Stoicism is experiencing a revival, often referred to as “contemporary” or “modern Stoicism.” This encompasses several phenomena:

• An intellectual and academic movement that began in the late 20th century, with works like Lawrence C. Becker’s A New Stoicism and contributions from philosophers like Philippa Foot, Alasdair MacIntyre, Martha Nussbaum, and Pierre Hadot.
• The emergence of Stoicism study circles in the early 2000s, initially within academic settings in England and the United States, then expanding globally. These groups are real or virtual, organized in associations like Stoa Gallica or informally.
• Public phenomena such as events like Stoic Week, Stoicon, specialized websites, increased presence on social media, and rising sales of Stoicism-related books.

Contemporary Stoicism seeks to reconstruct and update Stoic principles to address today’s needs and challenges, with various currents focusing on different aspects of the philosophy.

The doctrine of Zeno also experienced a revival during the Renaissance, known as Neo-Stoicism or Christian Stoicism. However, this movement was not as socially structured and widespread as contemporary Stoicism, with its groups, associations, and events.

Now that you have mastered some fundamentals of Stoicism, including key concepts, history, and prominent figures, you are ready to explore this rich and abundant universe. Whether ancient or contemporary, Stoic authors are numerous. If you feel the Stoic spirit within you, it’s time to dive into this universe that seeks to do you good!